The Vedic Literature: Structure, Themes and Expansion: A Book Review on The Veda Mīmāṃsā (Volume I)

(This is the second part of the book review. Here is a link for the first part.)

Sri Anirvan takes us deeper into the structure of Vedic literature, exploring fascinating questions like, “Are the Vedas three or four?” He explains how the answer changes depending on whether we focus on the collection of texts or the forms of mantras. Moving through the Ṛgveda, its maṇḍalas, and the arrangement of deities, Anirvan highlights the spiritual and symbolic depth within the Vedas. He also brings attention to the role of women in Vedic traditions and their contributions to spiritual knowledge. Through this exploration, the balance of opposites like knowledge and action, worldly goals and liberation, shines as the guiding principle of Vedic thought. This section sets the stage for understanding the next level of Vedic literature, the brāhmaṇas.

Vedic Insights: Structure, Soma, and Social Prosperity

Anirvan then delves into the structure of Vedic literature, answering the age-old question: “Are the Vedas three or four?” He explains:

1.   Four Vedas: When considering the Vedas as collections of saṃhitās.

2.    Three Vedas: When focusing on the forms of mantras—Ṛk (verse), Yajur (prose), and Sāma (song).

    Because of the similarity of the mantras of the Ṛgveda and the Atharvaveda as Rk (verse), both the Vedas are counted as one form.  Furthermore, he explains that the Ṛgveda is structured into the maṇḍalas and the sūktas, wherein the first and the tenth maṇḍalas are like prologue and epilogue, the maṇḍalas from second to the seventh are called the ārṣamaṇḍalas (ascribed to a single family of seers), the eighth maṇḍalas is a collection of pragāthas (the mantras of strophic type), hence pragāthamaṇḍalas and the ninth maṇḍalas is dedicated to Soma and therefore called somamaṇḍalas. 

    While the first maṇḍalas and the ninth maṇḍalas seem later additions, owing to linguistic developments, Anirvan warns that “the age of a thought cannot be measured through the linguistic evidence”, he states: “…the contention of the modern scholars that there were corresponding evolvements in thought as well does not appear to be valid. There is only a single ambience of thought in the whole of the Rig Samhita” (116-117). This unity of thought is also reflected in the arrangement of the devatās in the ārṣamaṇḍalas, wherein the Agni is invoked first, followed by the Indra. One also sees a similar pattern in the first Maṇḍalas, the mantras are addressed to Agni, Vāyu and Aśvinikumāras. Anirvan claims that: “The Veda speaks of the three residential planes: terrestrial, atmospheric, and celestial …. Agni holds the premier place amongst the terrestrial gods, Vāyu (or Indra) amongst the atmospheric and the two Asvins amongst the celestial one. This arrangement has connection with spiritual practices” (121).

    While discussing deities and their deeper layers of meanings, he shares an interesting insight about the Soma, a matter of intense curiosity for many, he states: “It is noteworthy that the Somamaṇḍalas was not dedicated to the deity Soma in ordinary form but to Somapavamana, that is, the Somadevata endowed with the quality of Pavamana. When the earthly Soma creeper after being purified and consecrated by ceremonial acts becomes the flowing nectar then that deity attains the status of Pavamanasoma”.

    It definitely indicates the subtle form of the Soma, connected with inner prāṇa and bliss. One must not forget this while exploring the historical and archaeological evidence through only gross interpretations of the herb Soma. 

    While discussing the structure and lineage of Yajurveda, Anirvan highlights the significant role of women ācārayās, mentioning Āmbhṛṇī as the founder of the Śukla Yajurveda; Vãk, the daughter of Āmbhṛṇī, composer of the most revered ‘Devī Sūkta’; nomenclature of various ācārayās, after their mother’s names. The famous seer of the Vedas, Yājñavalkya, belongs to this lineage. Anirvan also mentions the desire “to have a learned Pandita (daughter)”, showing immense importance for women in the Vedas. The worship of Śakti is closely associated with this phenomenon, “Vak, being the guarding deity of Vishvamitra in the form of Sasarparti or Vidyutvisarpini”. 

    The enduring relevance of the Vedas, for Bhāratavarṣa, is because of the dynamic balance between seemingly opposite ideas, and unification of various goals of life, whether it is tyāga or bhoga, śreyas or preyas, nihśreyasa or abhuydaya, bhukti or mukti. The structure of the Vedas and associated multiple Yajñas reflect this harmony of life. The division of Vedic rituals into Śrauta and Smārta signifies this deeper understanding, wherein, both abhuydaya, the worldly goals, and nihśreyasa, the attainment of immortality, are pursued simultaneously. 

    The Atharvaveda, with its predominance of smārtya rituals, focusing on “the nourishment of the domestic and the social life” through yajñas has encompassed various aspects of life. From relating to longevity, warding off evil spirits, the destruction of enemies, the cure of nightmarish dreams to the mutual enmity among people the text is another greatest collection of ancient India. Here, Anirvan finds the ‘Bhūmī Sūkta’ of the Atharvaveda, “unparalleled in the whole of the Vedic literature and possibly has no equal in any literature anywhere in the world”. Besides these domestic rituals, there is a profusion of mystical outpouring ranging from Kāma Sūkta, Prāṇa Sūkta to Ŗṣabha Sūkta and Gau Sūkta; expressed in “the Sandhya Bhasha of the Baul singers”. In the words of Anirvan: “The Atharva Saṃhitā on the whole represents the dynamic face of Vedic thought. The knowledge that is found in a restrained, self-possessed form in the Trayi becomes vivacious and overflowing in the Atharvaveda. This vivacity is an expression of life and dynamic energy” (146). The next section explores the brāhmaṇa, where Anirvan continues to unfold the another important rich tapestry of Vedic literature.

The Brāhmaṇas: Harmonizing Ritual and Knowledge

    In life, knowledge and action form an inseparable bond. One naturally follows the other, creating a dynamic interplay between thought and deed. The saṃhitā portion of the Vedas emphasizes the Mantras, focusing on knowledge (jñāna), while the brāhmaṇa s delve into the precise procedures of yajñas, emphasizing action (karma). The brāhmaṇas embody the concept of Absolute Reality, often described as "the consciousness or energy of the Vast." In the Vedic literature, the brāhmaṇa texts deal with the procedure of rites and rituals, often emphasizing the underlying mystical meanings. The brāhmaṇa literature comprises: the Brāhmaṇa, the Āraṇyaka, and the Upaniṣad. Anirvan states, “These three are intermingled. To posit chronological divisions in them from a linguistic viewpoint would be unreasonable”.

    As readers will delve into the profound wisdom of brāhmaṇas in this chapter of the Veda Mīmāṃsā, one can remind of the intricate dance between knowledge and action that shapes not only the Vedic rituals but also our own lives. While reading the core brāhmaṇa texts, Anirvan asserts that not a single brāhmaṇa depicts the entire sacrificial ritual. Each brāhmaṇa is connected with one of the four ṛtvikas (priests)—the hotṛ (Ŗgveda), the udgātā (Sāmaveda), the adhvaryus (Yajurveda), or the brahma (Atharvaveda). Therefore, any particular brāhmaṇa explains the ritualistic procedures from the specific role of the priest. 

    The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa of the Ṛgveda describes various yajñas, the five days agnistoma, twelve days dvādaśaha, one lunar year gavāmayana, the rājasūya sacrifice etc., whereas the Sāṅkhyāyaṇa Brāhmaṇa provides depictions of the agnyadhana, the Daśa Pūrṇamāsa (fortnight) and the Caturmāsya-yajñas (four-months). These yajñas are aligned with daily and seasonal cycles and mapped onto the larger cosmic rhythm. In fact, this whole process is designed to make one realize that a man’s entire life is a sacrifice, a journey of ascending back to primordial consciousness. 

    Next comes the brāhmaṇas of the Yajurveda, where we find the mantras and brāhmaṇa are mutually intertwined. The succession of the brāhmaṇas after the mantras does not apply in the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. It implies that there is no distinction between the knowledge (jñāna) and ritual (karma) sections of the Vedic literature. One also finds the famous story of Naciketā (Kaṭha Upaniṣad) in the Taittīriya Saṃhitā of the Yajurveda, again blurring the distinction among the Vedic literature. This Saṃhitā abounds with mystical meanings of Nachiketa Agni. Thus, the brāhmaṇa, with their allegories and mystical insights, seem to whisper a timeless truth—that every moment is an offering, and every action can lead us closer to a deeper understanding of existence. This realization evokes a sense of awe for the meticulous harmony between cosmic rhythms and human endeavours. And it is exactly here, where Anirvan interprets the important Agni ritual with an oft-repeated symbols:

1.    Vāyu (prāṇāyama), 

2.   Year (Saṃvatsara– merging with Āditya)

3.   Bird (Suparṇa or Haṃsa – inner living being my soul)

    The Vedic literature is full of such symbolism, yielding deeper meanings across various sections. Therefore, Anirvan sums up this symbolic unity: “Thus we find that there is the articulation of the same principle in the Samhita, in the Brahmana and in the Upanishad. The Brahmana depicts this principle in the language of allegory and the Upanishad in the language of philosophy” (194). In the next section, Anirvan brilliantly summarizes the significance of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as follows: 

1.   This Brāhmaṇa is important next to Rk Saṃhitā alone. 

2.   The youngest among the primary Brāhmaṇa. 

3.   Only two Brāhmaṇa are accented in the Vedic literature­--- the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa along with the Taittīriya Brāhmaṇa. 

    Following these observations, Anirvan again emphasizes the immense importance of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, in a spiritual journey of the Vedic literature: “the beginning of spiritual thinking that is found in the Rig Samhita reached its culmination in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vrihadaranyaka Upanishad is set into the last portion of Shatapatha Brahmana we come across not only the Vedic thinking, but also a view of the very peak of awareness that man’s philosophical thinking can reach. From the Gangotri, i.e., the source, to its merger with the boundless ocean (Sagarsangama) the entire flow of the Vedic spiritual practices has been contained within the gap of time passed between the period of Rig Samhita and that of the Shatapatha Brahmana” (198).

    Reading about the Shatapatha Brahmana and its culmination of spiritual thought inspires to reflect on the interconnectedness of all things—the journey from the source to the infinite ocean. Just as the Vedic rituals align with cosmic cycles, our lives, too, are a series of sacrifices and ascensions. This exploration of the brāhmaṇas compels to see life not as fragmented but as a unified journey, where every action holds the potential to awaken the vast consciousness within.

    Next, comes the most ethereal and esoteric section of Hindu philosophy, whose timeless wisdoms are captured and referred to as the Upaniṣad. It is the largest section of Volume-I of The Veda Mīmāṃsā, consisting of detailed discussions of the major Upaniṣads. Let’s see how Sri Anirvan has primarily explained the symbolism and mystical meaning behind them. 

The Upaniṣad: A Journey through the Philosophical Aspects of Vedic Literature

    To continue with the discussion, we can further say that the Upaniṣads, often regarded as the essence of Vedic thought, serve as an extraordinary repository of philosophical inquiry and mystical wisdom. Sri Anirvan delves deeply into this chapter with an insightful etymology of the term Upaniṣad, which is commonly translated as "to sit steadfastly close by" or "sitting near the teacher. "Beyond this, he offers an illuminating perspective, resonating with Shankaracharya's interpretation, describing it as an experience of "divine impulse." In Anirvan’s words, "sitting near" applies not to man, but to devatā: "When the Devata arrives and gets absorbed in the heart of the teacher (acharya), the true knowledge (tattvajnana) that blooms in him at that time is what the Upanishad is" (220).

    This profound statement reflects the interplay of the human and the divine, where knowledge arises from a transcendental union. Anirvan introduces the Aitareya Upaniṣad and the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad from the Ṛgveda. Through the mahāvākya: "Prajñāṇaṃ Brahma" (consciousness is brahma), the Aitareya unfolds the creation narrative, progressing through cosmic waters (ambhah) to subsequent layers, leading to indriya (the senses). In contrast, the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad explores prāṇavidyā, emphasizing the interconnectedness of life and the cosmos. Here, the eternal offering of breath to speech and vice versa is equated with a non-ritualistic agnihotra: “when one speaks, one offers breath as an oblation to speech and when one keeps silent, one offers speech as an oblation to breath. Both these oblations are never-ending eternal oblations, which men go on offering whether awake or sleep. This is what the real agnihotra is. As the ancient used to perform this agnihotra, they did not observe the ritualistic agnihotra” (230). Through integration of this concept into own life, invoking a sense of spirituality, transcending ritual and entering the realm of internal harmony Anirvan moves on with the Upaniṣad s of the Sāmaveda– the Kena and the Chāndogya.

    The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, tied to the Sāmaveda, exemplifies the spiritual resonance of udgītha (a deep chant) as a manifestation of cosmic rhythm--- a unifying vibration permeating existence. Anirvan unravels the deep spiritual layers of the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, beginning with udgītha (a deep-sounding chant), the apogee of Sāma song, where the reciter merges with the supreme. It is also equated with the sacred syllable aum. One can also trace the source of ‘aum’ (a mystical letter) to the udgītha. The Sāmanupāsanā is a meditation and reflection on the larger natural and cosmic rhythm, through the incessant sound of and as “rain, in all the waters, as the seasons, in the animals, as the senses, among the vital breaths, in speech, and as the Sun…the feeling of rhythmic flow of waves is present everywhere. This is a natural rhythm. A ready acceptance of this brings harmony and synthesis in life” (241). '

    The Sāmana or deep chant of udgītha is nothing but a pointer toward an inherent rhythm of the universe. The whole world becomes full of joy and melodies. Anirvan summarizes this, in an evocative manner: “The effulgence of the Sun, the pouring of rain, the cycle of seasons, the expansion of the worlds and the whole universe and the play of life or vital force all these have to be viewed as a wave-life a supreme unified entity. The thought behind this is that the entire rhythm of cosmic energy will be comprehended by the meditational practitioner all these have to be viewed as an overflowing wave of a vast symmetry” (251). As The Veda Mīmāṃsā’s esteemed readers ponder over Anirvan’s commentary, the idea of harmony with the universe can be felt deeply at personal level. The rhythmic chants of udgītha seem to whisper to us in our quiet moments, reminding us of a vast interconnected whole. It is as if the cosmos invites us to find our unique melody within its grand symphony. This realization, though abstract, brings a profound sense of calm and clarity.

    And in this context the author brings out the importance of Vāmadeva’s story. The story of Vāmadeva, born ayonija (not from a mother’s womb), bridges human potential with divine possibilities. Through meditative consciousness (dhī), the seer envisions divine light flowing like a thousand streams, likened to the nurturing dhenu (cosmic cow). These metaphors capture the devotee's transformation from human to ardhadeva (semi-divine), as seen in the Vedic tales of the ṛbhu, symbolizing human transcendence. The story finds a parallel with that of Śiva. It is also interesting to note that Śiva is also known as Vāmadeva. Anirvan also explains the invocation of Vāmadeva to Indra and Varuṇa: “The seer poet compares his Dhi or meditational consciousness to a Dhenu (cow representing diving light or a stream of divine consciousness) that has her flow of milk in a thousand streams and which is like flesh and blood to Indra-Varuna– a daughter (Nandini), (in other words– a daughter who delights)” (246).

    In these stories, we find a personal connection to the aspirational quality of life—the yearning to rise above limitations and glimpse divinity within ourselves. The invocation to become one with universal forces is a call to merge individuality with a greater collective consciousness, also resembles various ātmastutīs of the Vedic literature including the famous ‘Vāk Sūkta’ or ‘Devī Sūkta’. These ātmastutīs are an outpouring of complete immersion between devotee and deity; a state of absolute merger. It is then the seer introduces themselves not by their personal names but in the name of the devatās. Here devotee no longer remains a mere human being but becomes a semi-divine (ardhadeva). Anirvan connects this with the divine journey of the ṛbhus, from being human to gaining the status of ardhadeva. In this context, another interesting story that we find is of Upakosala Kamalāyana, who received instructions from Agni (the consecrated fire) about deeper connections between space and happiness. The Agni shows him that, “life-breath is Brahman, joy (kama) is Brahman, space (khāma) is Brahman.” And, here, Anirvan’s interpretation serves as the fire of illumination of timeless relevance, inviting us to delve into their mystical depths. In moments of solitude, the words of the Upaniṣads resonate like a quiet chant, urging us to sit steadfastly close - both to our inner self and the universe beyond - having our prāṇa and Agni properly harmonized with the cosmic rhythm.

Breath, Fire, and Inner Sacrifice

    So, now we learn about how prāṇa and agni are connected. This occurs through the concept of prāṇagnihotra, where food is offered to agni inside us, resulting in the effulgence of prāṇa. In fact, the five sacrificial fires such as gārhapatya, dakṣīṇā, āhavānīya, sabhya and avasatya are equated with five prāṇas, working within us: Prāna, Vyāna, Apāna, Samāna, Udāna. Here, the act of consuming food is equated with offering ‘āhuti’ in yajñas, culminating in the nourishment of the body and mind. The author further unveils this hidden connection, a few pages later, while making commentary on the fourth query of Praśna Upaniṣad, where sage Pippalāda answers: “during deep sleep all sense-organs are unified in the supreme Devata in the form of consciousness. In that state only the life-fires (Pranagni) remain awake in the fort that is the body. At that time, in the fire-filled body the Apana is Garhapatya, the Prana is Ahavaniya, the Vyana is the Anvaharyapacana. While the Samana-breath harmonizes the in-breathing as well the out-breathing, the Udana leads the mind, Udana that is the Yajmana in the sacrifice of life (Prana Yajnas) to Brahman” (364).

    Anirvan systematically explores, one after another, the fundamental themes and principal teachings of the major Upaniṣads across various sections. For the purpose of our symbolic analysis, we shall focus on the concluding example from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad’s aśvamedha yajñas, narrated in mystical language (Sandhyābhāṣya), portrays Death (Yama) sacrificing his body as a horse, symbolizing the transcendence of mortality. The yajamāna (sacrificer) merges with the cosmic puruṣa, dissolving individuality into the universal. 

    In the language of the mystics i.e. Sandhyābhāṣya, the narration of Ashvamedha is given. It begins with death, who in a series of resolve, wishes to sacrifice his body in the form of a horse. The sacrificial fire of aśvamedha yajñas is Arka, which takes us beyond mṛtyu. It is pertinent to note that the death or Yama is the “consciousness of the transcendental self”. The symbolism goes deeper. In fact, a sacrificing animal is no one else but the one who is sacrificing, a yajamāna. When he becomes one with devatā, he loses his soul to cosmic puruṣa. The overall poetic imagery reminds us of the surrender necessary for spiritual evolution—a theme echoed across teachings of Upaniṣads.

Weaving the Sacred Fabric of India: Itihāsa, Purāṇas, and Tantra

    In the last chapter of this volume, besides outlining the main characteristics of the six Vedāṅgas, Anirvan briefly touches upon the outflowing of Vedic literature to larger masses through itihāsa, purāṇas and tantra. He remarks that “the popularization of elitist ideas and also the refinement of the popular down the ages—true implementation of these inherent traits of the Brahmanical society—led to the growth of itihāsa-purāṇa and tantra. These two are the vehicles of Vedic thought” (516). For someone reflecting on the vibrancy of India's spiritual heritage, this statement is a powerful reminder of the dynamic interplay between exclusion and assimilation.

    If the Vedic literature is called trayividyā, then itihāsa and purāṇas are also designated as the smṛtiprasthāna. They act as the tools for popular education, the guiding force of India's social and cultural fabric, and contain spiritual teachings for the uninitiated and laymen. We can surmise this from our previous discussion of the sāmana. The journey of sāmana song from udgītha to the sacred syllable Om, where the former requires technical training of many years, but the latter is for anyone seeking spiritual access to the Vedic wisdom, without undergoing any formal practices. Here also lies the important role of Kṛṣṇadvaipāyaṇa Vyāsa who crystallized the thinking of the Vedic āryas through compilation and synthesis, making it available to the larger sections of society. The fabric of Indian spiritual tradition that begins with the Vedic literature culminates in the tantra.

    Anirvan emphasizes the importance of the Tantric texts as equivalent to śruti literature, despite being composed for the larger masses. The tantra draws its philosophical premises from the rich and hoary traditions of the Samkhya and Vedanta. At the popular level, the “spell and charms” of the tantra may find the source in the Atharvaveda. The literal meaning of Tantra is ‘tantu’, a fabric of cloth that implies an act of weaving. This brings it closer to the yajñas ceremony which is also equated in many places with weaving (and unwavering of the self). If weaving is one dimension of spiritual practices, then the fabrication of a fire altar (yajñavedi) is also used for the meditation of the larger cosmic reality. This fabrication of the sacrificial altar finds resonance with the construction of yantra in the spiritual practices of the Tantra. This proves that only the outer forms of these spiritual worships varied in the different ages, the underlying spirit remains common and universal. Anirvan aptly summarizes this: “The Brahmins by refining the Tantra have over time, raised its status and accepted in as their own. Now it can be easily said that the Vaidika Dharma by climbing down from its elitist peak and moving forward through the meditation of the ItihasPurana and the Tantra has spread among the common people and the mass of this country” (520).

    One can see a deeper underlying current among varied Indian spiritual traditions, despite their apparent dissimilarity and variance. What is required is ‘inward perception’ to see India as the whole, as Shri Ram Swarup reminds us. For seekers of Vedic wisdom, Anirvan’s first volume of The Veda Mīmāṃsā provides a lucid and profound primer. Its exploration of structure, themes, and connections offers a gateway to understanding the deeper mystical insights of the Vedas. As this review concludes, the journey does not end here. The subsequent volumes of The Veda Mīmāṃsā promise an enriched exploration of deities and their metaphoric underpinnings, paving the way for an even deeper understanding of India's spiritual legacy. And, we will continue this exploration of the Vedic literature, with a more specific investigation of Vedic deities and their underlying symbolism, as elaborated in the second and the third volume of The Veda Mīmāṃsā.

(This is the second part of a detailed book review of Sri Anirvan's The Veda Miṃaṃsā (Vol. 1). If you wish to read the original text by Sri Anirvan, here is a link: The Veda Miṃaṃsā)

• 25 min read
• 0
• 0